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COGNIGOALS Glossary

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A

Anticipation

Anticipation is a player's ability to predict future game events or movements of teammates and opponents and respond effectively. This skill is crucial in football because it enables players to react quickly and efficiently during games. Anticipation is built on the player's experience and knowledge of game patterns and movement sequences. Through regular practice and gameplay, players learn to identify subtle cues that indicate upcoming actions. These cues can include an opponent's gaze direction, body posture, or ball movements.

In-depth information:

Anticipation is deeply rooted in memory, as it relies on the storage and retrieval of experiences, patterns, and motor sequences. Cognitive processing is a key aspect, requiring the rapid processing of information. Working memory plays a central role by linking current information with stored experiences and knowledge to make predictions and control one's movements. Attention direction is also crucial. Experienced players have learned to focus their attention on relevant game cues. This ability is stored in memory and allows players to quickly identify and respond to important elements of a game situation. When a player practices specific actions frequently enough, these movements are recalled automatically and without conscious thought, which also applies to reactions to game movements, forming part of anticipation. These stored pieces of information enable players to react efficiently and swiftly to game situations, thereby enhancing their performance. Since flexible and situational application of movement sequences is essential in football, the COGNIGOALS approach focuses on training methods that specifically target flexible anticipation without causing rigid associations of movement patterns.

Further reading:

  1. Kämpfer, J., Vogel, L., & Schack, T. (2024) Anticipation (second-order motor planning) is stored in memory-Processing of grasp postures in a priming paradigm. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1393254. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393254
  2. Roca, A., Williams, A. M., & Ford, P. R. (2012). Developmental activities and the acquisition of superior anticipation and decision making in soccer players. Journal of sports sciences, 30(15), 1643-1652. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.701761
  3. Williams, A.M., Ford, P., & Drust, B. (Eds.). (2023). Science and Soccer: Developing Elite Performers (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003148418

Attention

Attention plays a central role in football. Players often have to perceive several actions on the field simultaneously and, in other situations, focus on one thing in particular. For example, defenders must keep both the ball-carrying player and the other attackers in sight, which divides their attention. However, if only one player is approaching the defender alone, he must focus all his attention on the one-on-one situation in order to manage the situation successfully.

These examples illustrate that attention is a limited resource that we can compare to a flashlight. A wide beam setting illuminates a large area with low intensity, while a small beam illuminates a small area very brightly. The flashlight metaphor illustrates how football players' attention can be adapted on the field.

Depending on the game situation, a player must choose and continuously adjust the optimal focus of attention. Similarly, the intensity of attention (concentration) must be divided, as the attention cannot be maintained at a maximum level throughout the entire game.

B

Bilateralism

See Two-footedness.

C

Chunking

Chunking refers to the consolidation of multiple memory units into a larger unit. A sequence of movements can therefore be stored in long-term memory as a unit so that not all partial movements have to be maintained in working memory when the movement is performed. At the beginning of the learning process, movements must be actively processed in working memory. Working memory is, therefore, very strained. In the course of movement learning, the movements are stored in long-term memory.

To perform a movement, the movements do not have to be actively and explicitly processed in working memory but are retrieved by linking working memory with long-term memory. This process is called chunking.

Cognition in football and cognitive functions

Modern football is characterized by an increase in fast actions with and without the ball, as well as ball contacts and passes. Fast play requires not only physical, technical, and tactical abilities but also a high cognitive performance from the players. Cognition refers to the conscious and unconscious mental processes, including perception, attention, and action control.

In-depth information:

Sports actions are heavily influenced by cognitive aspects such as perception, attention, memory, anticipation, and many other cognitive processes. Additionally, cognitive abilities set the framework for speed of execution. In football, it is important to quickly perceive all relevant information and the complex game situation. This can only be achieved if the player can switch their attention between parallel environmental events. For example, the player must perceive information about their teammates, opponents, and the ball. If a player does not have the necessary perceptual speed, they will not be able to process all relevant information. Quick perception of all information leads to an early anticipation of teammates and opponents, allowing for a quick and situation-appropriate reaction.
 
A player who has to receive a high pass must first perceive the positions of their teammates and opponents' positions before receiving the ball to plan and prepare for future actions after receiving the ball. Then, they must quickly direct their attention back to the incoming ball in order to receive it optimally. Afterward, they must update the positions of the other players again, and the player with the ball must quickly decide what their next action with the ball should be. However, the player also needs a high cognitive ability (speed of decision-making) in order to choose and implement the best possible action among all the alternatives under time pressure.
 
Since every player is constantly faced with such complex decision-making situations on the field, cognitive abilities are a basic requirement for high performance in football. High-level athletes, therefore, systematically differ from athletes with a lower level of performance by having better cognitive abilities. This conclusion is also reached by Hans-Erik Scharfen and Daniel Memmert in their overview article. They summarized studies that examined the relationship between cognitive functions and performance in sports. The literature shows that high-performance level athletes have a higher performance in perception and executive functions than low-performance level athletes. They also perform higher in other cognitive functions, including anticipation, cognitive processing speed, and decision-making. The authors emphasize the relevance of cognitive functions for the optimal training of players.

Further reading:

  1. Höner, O. (2017). Die Bedeutung kognitiver Faktoren für die Leistungsfähigkeit von Fußballspielern. Internationaler Trainer-Kongress des BDFL, 24-26.07.2017, Bochum, pp. 42-45.
  2. Lanwehr, R. & Mayer, J. (2018). People Analytics im Profifußball: Implikationen für die Wirtschaft. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-21256-8.
  3. Roca, A., Ford, P. R., & Memmert, D. (2021). Perceptual-cognitive processes underlying creative expert performance in soccer. Psychological Research, 85(3), 1146-1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01320-5.
  4. Scharfen, H.-E., & Memmert, D. (2019). Measurement of Cognitive Functions in Experts and Elite-Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 33(5), 843-860.  https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3526.

Cognitive add-ons

 With cognitive add-ons, we refer to additional mental tasks completed simultaneously with the exercises. These cognitive add-ons can be straightforward motor movement tasks (such as Rabbit & Hunter) or other types of tasks (number sequences, memory tasks, etc.). Sometimes the cognitive add-ons are also linked to the actual movement task.

Why do we do this? When we perform two tasks in parallel, sufficient working memory (we speak of working memory capacity) must be available for information processing. Working memory is a performance-determining factor for top performance in football, as several tasks often must be completed simultaneously. When the capacity limit is reached, there is a decline in task performance. Studies show that working memory is trainable. Integrating cognitive add-ons with movement tasks enables targeted and systematic "working memory training" through increasingly complex tasks. 

Further reading:
 
  1. Olesen, P. J., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory. Nature neuroscience, 7(1), 75-79. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1165.
  2. Furley, P., & Wood, G. (2016). Working memory, attentional control, and expertise in sports: A review of current literature and directions for future research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(4), 415-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.001.
  3. Wollesen, B., Janssen, T. I., Müller, H., & Voelcker-Rehage, C. (2022). Effects of cognitive-motor dual task training on cognitive and physical performance in healthy children and adolescents: A scoping review. Acta Psychologica, 224,103498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103498.

Comfort zone

When we use the term comfort zone for our exercises, we describe a state of complete control when performing the exercise. In this case, individual uncertainty and fear in the execution of the exercise are minimized.

Creativity in football

Creativity is an important basic attribute in football, as successful solutions often need to be novel and surprising to the opponent. Creative actions can be crucial for both successful defensive actions and effective offensive actions. To play creatively, players require not only a wide range of technical skills, but also the ability to use these skills freely, without constraints or automatisms.

In-depth information:

Creativity is defined as the ability to develop new, original, and useful ideas that serve to solve problems. This includes not only the flexible development of new perspectives, solutions, and strategies but also the suppression and rejection of familiar and obvious behavioral patterns. Creative people therefore have a wide range of options for dealing with a problem appropriately and successfully in a given situation. Creativity is, therefore, an important basic attribute in football, as successful solutions in football are often original and surprising to the opponent. Evidence for this is provided by Matthias Kempe and Daniel Memmert, who analyzed the games and goals of the 2010 and 2014 World Cups and the 2016 European Championship in terms of creativity. They found that particularly creative play actions are used just before goals are scored. In addition, teams with higher creativity in the game were more successful in these tournaments. There is, therefore, a close relationship between creativity and success in football.
 
Creative football players have a wider attention focus than less creative players, allowing them to perceive important key information from their environment earlier and incorporate it into decision-making processes when selecting actions. High creativity can therefore lead to even seemingly hopeless situations being successfully overcome. However, creative actions also have the effect of being unpredictable for opponents in all other situations and therefore have a high probability of success.
 
A player running with the ball towards two opponents who block all pass routes to possible receiving stations must find a creative solution to the situation in order to avoid slowing down or interrupting an attack and playing a back pass. A lob over one of the two opponents to a free teammate behind them would be, for example, a creative solution that is unpredictable for the opponents and therefore has a high probability of success. Another solution would be to perform a feint to deceive the two opponents into going in the wrong direction, creating a gap and making the pass route for the pass open. In conclusion: Creative actions in football are based on cognitive and perceptual skills. Prerequisite: To be able to use creativity on the field, motor, cognitive and technical skills are needed. 

Further studies:

  1. Roca et al., 2020: Roca, Ford, and Memmert studied 40 professional and semi-professional football players in terms of their creativity and perceptual-cognitive performance on a computerized decision-making task. The results show that individuals with higher creativity differ from less creative individuals in terms of visual search strategies and cognitive processes. Creative people have a wider attention focus. The study supports the connection between cognitive abilities and creativity in sport-specific situations.


Further reading:

  1. Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007.
  2. Fink, A., & Benedek, M. (2019). The Neuroscience of Creativity. Neuroforum, 25 (4), 2019, 231-240. https://doi.org/10.1515/nf-2019-0006.
  3. Kempe, M., & Memmert, D. (2018). “Good, better, creative”: the influence of creativity on goal scoring in elite soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(21), 2419–2423. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1459153.
  4. Roca, A., Ford, P. R., & Memmert, D. (2021). Perceptual-cognitive processes underlying creative expert performance in soccer. Psychological research, 85(3), 1146–1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01320-5.

Crossover movements

Crossover movements are leg and arm movements performed both in front of and behind the body. Everyday movements often do not require crossover movements, so the systematic integration of this movement form requires cognitive action planning and simultaneously allows for new movement perceptions.

E

Executive functions (cognitive flexibility, inhibition, working memory)

Anyone who deals with cognitive training in football will soon come across the term "executive functions" in sports (latin for exsequi ("execute"). We group all mechanisms under this term involved in the planning and control (i.e., execution) of movements. Studies show that executive functions can be trained. There are three central executive functions: cognitive flexibility, (response) inhibition, and working memory.
In-depth information:

Executive functions represent higher cognitive abilities that form a basis for problem-solving, planning, and controlling actions. Dr. Torbjörn Vestberg and other researchers examined the extent to which these functions influence performance in football. They conducted tests to measure general executive functions in football players from the first, second, and third Swedish divisions. The study showed that players from the first division had better executive functions than players from the second and third divisions. Furthermore, there was a positive relationship between executive functions and the number of goals and assists that the players scored even two seasons later. These and other studies suggest a close relationship between executive functions and performance in football.

Executive functions can be divided into three overarching basic functions: cognitive flexibility, (response) inhibition, and working memory.

Cognitive flexibility is relevant for mentally switching between different situations and tasks with different contents. High cognitive flexibility is necessary to quickly adapt to new demands and ensure rapid switching of attention focus. Cognitive flexibility arises from the other two functions, working memory and inhibition. In football, players are constantly exposed to new situations and must constantly mentally switch between different things due to the game's complexity. A player dribbling the ball towards the opponent's goal must know what is happening behind them, what is happening in front of them, and where the opponents and teammates are located. At the same time, they must perceive how far they are laying the ball in front of them with each contact. In addition, there is information about, for example, the quality of the turf, which can change with each step, as well as information about the wind, which can influence the ball's movement.

Response inhibition (or just inhibition) describes the ability to inhibit and suppress automatic, already started (initiated) behavior. Inhibition is important in order not to follow every stimulus from the environment and to focus attention only on relevant environmental stimuli. It is also important in suppressing automated behavior and movements, thus providing room for flexible and creative action. A football player who wants to play a cross into the penalty area must suppress this already planned action if an opponent unexpectedly covers the teammate.
 
Inhibition also allows an action to be planned and carried out that differs from the original action. Instead of playing a cross, the player can stop the already-started movement and, without much delay, play a flat pass to another teammate, for example. Another important factor of inhibition in football is that the game situation is often very complex and a variety of environmental stimuli must be taken in, but not all of them are relevant to the situation. For example, irrelevant stimuli such as the singing of football fans can be suppressed and the focus can be placed on task-relevant stimuli.

The third basic function is working memory, which has the function to continuously update information from the environment, maintain it mentally over a certain period of time, and process it. Working memory supports the other two functions.

During a football game, the player must constantly maintain and update information from the environment in their working memory. For example, they must perceive and "keep in mind" the entire field and the positions of teammates and opponents and update them based on constantly changing situations to make the best possible decisions.
Further reading:

  1. Lanwehr, R. & Mayer, J. (2018). People Analytics im Profifußball: Implikationen für die Wirtschaft. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-21256-8.
  2. Vestberg, T., Gustafson, R., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2012). Executive Functions Predict the Success of Top-Soccer Players. PLoS ONE, 7(4), e34731. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034731.

Exercise series

When several (sport motor) exercises are performed in sequence and systematically build on each other, the sequence is referred to as a methodical exercise series. Exercise series are often used to learn movements and offer learners the opportunity to gradually approach the target movement and learn the target exercise step by step.

Exercises without ball

Of course, football players want to train with the ball from the start. However, this is not always advisable. Exercises without the ball are particularly valuable when difficult exercise elements are trained, where the ball significantly complicates the task. In addition, practicing without the ball has the advantage that the movement of one's own body is in the foreground, and the perception of one's own movement becomes the goal of the action. Basically, exercises without the ball are considered preparatory exercises for later tasks.

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F

Feedback in training

The use of feedback in training can take place in different ways. Both the result of an action (e.g., where does the shot on goal go) and the feedback from one's own body (how does the shot feel) can be understood as feedback. However, the coach can also provide feedback to support the learning process.

In-depth information:

Feedback is helpful in training to support athletes in learning new movements or optimizing movement execution. This makes feedback have a decisive influence on the development and performance of each individual athlete. In football, verbal feedback is often used. However, incorrect feedback and instructions can also have negative effects. The use of verbal control is not always useful in every context or learning phase, as there is not only the risk of dependency on feedback but also the implicit learning process, such as tactical behavior, is prevented.
 
Furthermore, the frequency, timing, and accuracy of feedback determine whether it has a positive effect on the athlete or not. On the one hand, it is important to use feedback sparingly. If an athlete receives too much feedback too often, they may become dependent on it and need feedback in all situations. This is also suggested by a study by Edward Hebert and Cheryl Coker, which examined the influence of feedback frequency on learning the throw-in in football.
 
The results show that learning this skill was most effective and sustainable when the subjects received feedback after every second practice attempt. The improvements were more significant than with feedback after every attempt or after every fourth attempt. For example, if a player practices several free kicks in a row, it may be helpful to give feedback after every second free kick rather than after every attempt. In addition to frequency, timing is also important. Feedback after the movement is always preferred to feedback during the movement. Feedback during the movement can make the athlete dependent on it, disrupt the athlete's movement execution, inhibit self-regulation, and cause movement patterns to be executed improperly. For the example of the free kick, this means giving feedback only after the shot or even after a few attempts. This allows the athlete to reflect on their performance and technique and promotes self-regulation.
 
In terms of the accuracy of feedback, the feedback can be categorical (wrong/right), graded (degree of correctness), or detailed information (degree of correctness with additional information). In the example of the free kick, categorical feedback would be to say that the free kick was not good. Graded feedback would be to say that the free kick was not good because the ball had too flat a flight curve. Detailed feedback would include mentioning how the shooter should have hit the ball or changed their technique to make the ball fly higher. Often, it is helpful to start with categorical or graded feedback in the learning process and to increase the level of detail of the feedback as the performance level and expertise increase. 

Further reading:

  1. Hebert, E. P., & Coker, C. (2021). Optimizing Feedback Frequency in Motor Learning: Self-Controlled and Moderate Frequency KR Enhance Skill Acquisition. Perceptual and motor skills, 128(5), 2381–2397. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125211036413.
  2. Otte, F. W., Davids, K., Millar, S. K., & Klatt, S. (2020). When and How to Provide Feedback and Instructions to Athletes?-How Sport Psychology and Pedagogy Insights Can Improve Coaching Interventions to Enhance Self-Regulation in Training. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01444.
  3. Juszczak, T.G. (2007) Motorisches Lernen. In: Spirgi-Gantert I., Suppé B. (eds) FBL Klein-Vogelbach Functional Kinetics: Die Grundlagen (S. 117-126). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-29875-5_5.

G

Game intelligence

Game intelligence in football describes the ability to act appropriately in different situations and generate optimal solutions for game situations. In this context, football players have to perceive all important information about their environment under high (temporal) pressure and constantly changing situations and take it into account in their actions and decisions. A player with high game intelligence stands out for making the best possible decision in even unexpected situations.

In-depth information:

In addition to technical, tactical, and physical components, game intelligence plays an important role in modern football. Game intelligence, also known as convergent thinking, refers to acting appropriately in a given situation and seeking, finding, and implementing optimal solution strategies. In doing so, football players must perceive all the important information about the environment under high (temporal) pressure and constantly changing situations and take it into account in their actions and decisions. A player with high game intelligence is therefore characterized by making the right decisions and acting appropriately even in unexpected situations.
 
Dr. Torbjörn Vestberg and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm examined these correlations in professional football players. They asked the coaches of four teams from the Swedish first division to evaluate their players' game intelligence. It was found that players who had already been in a national team had a higher rating of game intelligence than those who had never been part of a national team. In addition, a relationship was found between game intelligence and a test that measures the ability for fast and creative problem-solving and executive functions.
 
The prerequisite for a high level of tactical understanding as well as the ability to anticipate the actions of opponents and teammates. A high level of game intelligence enables the use of information about the opponent's body position to anticipate movements earlier and better. As a result, game-intelligent players can better predict the outcome of game situations by anticipating patterns in tactics and player behavior on the field. The game can therefore be "read" faster and more accurately.
 
Players with high game intelligence often seem one step ahead of their opponents. If a player with high game intelligence has the ball and runs towards an opponent, they will quickly register the opponent's signals and anticipate their future actions. Small changes in body posture are anticipated and indicate in which direction the opponent will take their next step. The player with the ball can therefore predict in advance that, for example, the right side will be open, allowing them to dribble the ball past the opponent on the right. A game-intelligent footballer can also register in advance that a teammate wants to set off on a sprint, allowing them to pass the ball past the opponent on the right in the direction of the teammate's run.
 
To show these intelligent performances on the field, players need motor-cognitive abilities and resources that allow for the efficient execution of their own movements but also create free cognitive capacities that can be used for the perception of the environment. It is important to note that these motor-cognitive abilities and resources are trainable.  

Further reading:

  1. Godbout P., & Gréhaigne J. F. (2021) Game-Play Language and Game-Play Intelligence – Wording, Planning, and Enacting Action Plans in Team Sports. Athens Journal of Sports. 8(1), 47-64. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajspo.8-1-2.
  2. Memmert, D. & König, S. (2011). Zur Vermittlung einer allgemeinen Spielfähigkeit im Sportspiel. In König S., Memmert D. & Moosmann K. Das große Buch der Sportspiele (S. 18-37). Wiebelsheim: Limpert-Verlag
  3. Vestberg, T., Jafari, R., Almeida, R., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2020). Level of play and coach-rated game intelligence are related to performance on design fluency in elite soccer players. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 9852. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66180-w.

I

Inhibition trap

In situations where players have a strong urge to perform a movement, e.g., because they have always done it that way or because it “feels right”, we intentionally insert movements with varying requirements. These are called inhibition traps because we create situations that require the suppression (inhibition) of the movement impulse.

Systematic training through inhibition traps not only promotes the inhibition of the movement impulses themselves, but also allows us to break old movement patterns. Ultimately, we are training the rapid and flexible execution of movements without resorting to automated (predictable) patterns.

M

Motor Memory

Motor memory refers to the brain's ability to store, organize, and recall movement patterns as needed. It is important to understand that movements are not stored as rigid action programs in memory. Instead, they are retained as complex representations that integrate information about various aspects of the movement. These movement representations, as they are called in sports science, enable athletes to perform movements with precision, adapt flexibly to changing environmental conditions, and learn new movement patterns.

In-depth information:

Movement representations are cognitive structures that encompass information about desired action effects, the biomechanical parameters of one's body, and the sensory consequences of the movement (Schack, 2012). The desired action effects can be divided into:

  • Distal effects, which refer to outcomes achieved in the environment (e.g., the speed and direction with which a ball is passed to a teammate).


  • Proximal effects, which relate to one's own body (e.g., how the ball contact feels during a soccer shot with the outside of the foot).

The long-term memory and working memory serve different functions in the context of movement control:

  • Long-term memory: It stores motor skills over a long period, allowing for the retrieval of previously learned movement patterns through repeated practice. These are stored in a stable and organized manner, enabling movements to be recalled and executed without conscious effort. For instance, a football trick learned long ago can still be performed flawlessly.


  • Working memory: This handles the short-term storage and processing of movement information. It is active during the planning, adaptation, and execution of movements, particularly in situations requiring quick adjustments or when dealing with new movement challenges. While working memory has limited capacity and duration, it is essential for learning new motor skills and adapting to changing conditions.

The Model of "Movement Architecture" by Prof. Dr. Thomas Schack describes motor memory as a hierarchically organized system (Schack, 2010). Basic Action Concepts (BACs) are the fundamental building blocks of movement representations. BACs bundle information about the sensory effects of a movement, the biomechanical parameters of the body's movement system, and the specific features of movement execution. For example, the BAC "jump takeoff" in high jump includes details about the leg force applied, the coordination of the jumping motion, the visual perception of the bar, and the kinesthetic sensation of the takeoff.

The way BACs functionally relate to one another within a movement defines the structure of the movement representation. Studies show that the complexity and differentiation of movement representations evolve with increasing expertise (Frank, Land & Schack, 2013). Experts have more integrated and functionally structured representations than novices due to the experience and motor knowledge they have accumulated during motor learning. This functional representation structure helps experts recall and execute movements appropriately for a given situation, as well as recognize and anticipate movement patterns of others. The Structural Dimensional Analysis of Motor Memory is a method developed to measure and visualize movement representations in long-term memory.

Further reading:

  1. Frank, C., Land, W. M., & Schack, T. (2013). Mental representation and learning: The influence of practice on the development of mental representation structure in complex action. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(3), 353-361. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.12.001
  2. Schack, T. (2010). Die kognitive Architektur menschlicher Bewegungen: Innovative Zugänge für Psychologie, Sportwissenschaft und Robotik. Meyer & Meyer Verlag. https://www.bisp-surf.de/Record/PU201011008763
  3. Schack, T. (2012). Measuring mental representations. Handbook of measurement in sport and exercise psychology, 203-214. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281508297_Measuring_mental_representations

Movement patterns

See Novel movement patterns.

Multitasking and task switching

When we play football, we constantly have to perform multiple tasks at the same time. We have to perceive the opponents, the teammates, the ball, and a lot of other game-relevant information. We also have to make decisions, engage in duels, communicate with teammates, and much more. This often happens under high time and precision pressure. We speak of multitasking when at least two tasks are completed and carried out with temporal overlap.

In-depth information:

As mentioned above, multitasking refers to the simultaneous or constant switching between two or more tasks, which may be cognitive or motor-related actions. In the case of simultaneous actions, the cognitive processes necessary for both tasks must be processed and maintained in parallel in the working memory. When constantly switching between tasks, the process of switching also requires additional cognitive resources. As the cognitive resources and capacity of the working memory of each person are limited, the individual actions involved in multitasking cannot be performed with full precision and performance. In addition, multitasking makes decision-making processes more difficult and slower and leads to more errors.
 
For example, when a football player dribbles towards the opponent's goal, they must not only focus on ball control but also perceive the positions and movements of the opponent's players and teammates and anticipate their movements to prevent a ball loss or prepare for a possible pass. In addition, for example, acoustic signals from the fans or the coach must be taken in and processed. Depending on the situation, our brain is simultaneously busy with many other processes. These parallel processes mean that each individual task cannot be performed to its full potential and that compromises in execution, such as in dribbling, must be made, and tactical mistakes can occur.
 
Conclusion: To participate successfully in the game, complex information and tasks must be perceived, processed, and executed in parallel. This requires cognitive and motor skills that must be flexibly available under time and precision pressure. A systematic summary of the current research by Pedro Moreira and colleagues shows that this ability to process different tasks in parallel can be trained and performance improved. They bring together studies from various sports that show that training with integrated dual tasks (performing multiple tasks simultaneously, i.e., using "cognitive add-ons") trains, among other things, the working memory and attention control. This leads to improved parallel processing of complex tasks and decision-making in game situations.  

Further reading:

  1. Koch, I., Poljac, E., Müller, H., & Kiesel, A. (2018). Cognitive structure, flexibility, and plasticity in human multitasking—An integrative review of dual-task and task-switching research. Psychological Bulletin, 144(6), 557–583. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000144.
  2. Moreira, P. E. D., Dieguez, G. T. de O., Bredt, S. da G. T., & Praça, G. M. (2021). The Acute and Chronic Effects of Dual-Task on the Motor and Cognitive Performances in Athletes: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1732. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041732.
  3. Spiegel, M. A., Koester, D., & Schack, T. (2013). The functional role of working memory in the (re-) planning and execution of grasping movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39(5), 1326-1339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031398.

N

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the central nervous system to adapt optimally to changes in the environment. New behaviors can be acquired, learned, and optimized to adapt behavior to daily life circumstances as best as possible. Plasticity means a change in relation to use, which can affect individual nerve cells or entire brain areas at the neuronal level. All learning processes are, therefore, an expression of the nervous system's plasticity.

Further reading:

Hummel, F.C. & Gerloff, C. (2012). Funktionsanpassung im motorischen System. In: Karnath, H. O. & Thier, P. (Hrsg.). Springer-Lehrbuch. Kognitive Neurowissenschaften: Mit 28 Tabellen (3. Aufl., 733-740). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25527-4.

Novel movement patterns

The use of unknown movement patterns inevitably requires the learning of a new movement. For this purpose, initial movement goals must be created and a rough movement plan developed. The subsequent perception-based experiences during movement execution are then stored and generate a first movement idea. Subsequent movement executions are used to optimize the movement idea with respect to the desired movement goals. In this process, we incorporate perception-based movement experiences into our movement idea; for example, we know how it feels to cross our arms behind our body after doing it.

S

Sensorimotor functions

Sensorimotor functions describe the interaction between sensory (stimulus reception) and the resulting response in the form of motorics (movement). Targeted movements depend on sensory information, which among other things, contains information about body posture, the position of the body in space, and the movement itself.

Thus, stimuli can be forwarded from the body's receptors to the central nervous system and processed there, so that muscle tension and movement patterns can be adjusted or body posture can be changed. These processes take place to a large extent in parallel, such as between the eyes and the targeted control of the hands.

Further reading:
Luhmann, H.J. (2010). Sensomotorische Systeme: Körperhaltung und Bewegung. In: Klinke, R., Pape, H.C., Kurtz, A. & Silbernagl S. (Hrsg.), Lehrbuch Physiologie.(6. Aufl., S. 758-761). Thieme. https://doi.org/10.1055/b-002-46974.

Spatial orientation ability

Spatial orientation ability plays a central role in football. It is the ability to move in a targeted way on the field and to perceive the complex processes in this space. In this regard, players must perceive both opponents and teammates in relevant playing areas as well as adequately position themselves and adapt their own movements to the game situation.

In addition to visual orientation, proprioceptive sensors of the body (e.g., balance, muscle tension and posture) play a significant role in orientation in space. Spatial orientation is trained in exercises in various ways by integrating different spaces (e.g., movements in front of and behind the body, lateral movements, etc.).

T

Two-footedness, laterality, and transfer effects

Laterality (sidedness) refers to the fundamental concept of the dominance of one side of the body. It can be categorized into rotational sidedness, handedness, or footedness. The term "bilateral" (bi = two) thus refers to the ability to use both sides equally, involving the use of both body halves, such as the right and left foot, when learning or training motor skills.

In many sports, including football, there is a significant advantage in performing movements and techniques with both sides of the body and both feet. While genetic factors play a role in laterality, clear evidence shows that training can influence laterality. Bilaterality, including two-footedness (also referred to as ambidexterity) in footballers, is trainable, and we specifically address this using our comfort zone principle.

In-depth information:

David Carey and colleagues studied game actions in several matches at the 1998 World Cup in France and in games of English first-division teams during the 1997/1998 season in terms of the success of using the dominant (strong) or non-dominant (weak) foot. The analyses show that actions (ball reception, dribbling, and passing) with both the dominant and non-dominant feet were performed by professional football players with the same success rate.
 
The ability to perform movements bilaterally increases flexibility and the number of action alternatives available to the player in game situations. Therefore, players with a well-developed two-footedness can solve game situations more creatively while, at the same time, their decisions and actions are less predictable for opponents. In contrast, players who always use the same foot when dribbling, shooting, and passing (have to) avoid using the non-dominant foot or use alternative, possibly even riskier, technical solutions under time pressure. From the point of view of coaches, ambidextrous players can be used tactically more flexibly.
 
If we consider motor learning over the course of life, early bilateral training is useful in helping athletes learn new movements more quickly or improve already known movement sequences. A study by scientists Eilif Haaland and Jan Hoff investigated the influence of training the non-dominant or dominant foot on the motor performance of football players. The results show that the performance increase in passing, shooting, and dribbling was greater after an eight-week training period with the weak foot than with the strong foot. Interestingly, the additional performance increase in these skills was measurable for both the weak and strong foot.
 
Therefore, the COGNIGOALS program uses bilateral training and enhances these effects through the combination with the self-developed comfort zone principle. This leads to a comfortable use of the non-dominant foot and simultaneous training of the dominant foot. 

Further reading:

  1. Carey, D. P., Smith, D. T., Martin, D., Smith, G., Skriver, J., Rutland, A., & Shepherd, J. W. (2009). The bi-pedal ape: Plasticity and asymmetry in footedness. Cortex, 45(5), 650-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2008.05.011.
  2. Haaland, E., & Hoff, J. (2003). Non-dominant leg training improves the bilateral motor performance of soccer players. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 13(3), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0838.2003.00296.x.
  3. Maurer, H. (2005). Beidseitiges Üben sportmotorischer Fertigkeiten. Zeitschrift Für Sportpsychologie, 12, 93-99. https://doi.org/10.1026/1612-5010.12.3.93.
  4. Pietsch, S., & Jansen, P. (2018). Laterality-Specific Training Improves Mental Rotation Performance in Young Soccer Players. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 220. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00220.
  5. Stöckel, T., & Carey, D. P. (2016). Laterality Effects on Performance in Team Sports. Laterality in Sports, 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-801426-4.00014-6.

W

Working memory

The working memory processes current information and makes it available for a short time. We can, therefore, not only remember numbers or texts but also movements, running paths, positions of opponents (etc.). The capacity of the working memory is limited. If I can process more information at the same time, I can use it to make better decisions. For example: If someone is able to notice the free teammate under high opponent pressure and at the same time perform a deceptive action like a feint, they have an advantage in a one-on-one.

In-depth information:

Working memory is responsible for the temporal storage of information to solve cognitive tasks. All task-relevant information arrives here. It provides the foundation for the control of attention and maintains task-relevant information mentally to compare it with stored memory content. Working memory capacity is limited and closely related to higher cognitive abilities such as intelligence, learning, or creativity. A higher working memory capacity ensures that more information can be processed simultaneously and is compared faster with content from long-term memory.
 
A powerful working memory can, therefore, quickly process all relevant information, compare it with long-term memory, and take this information into account when planning an action to develop the best possible solution.
 
Since football is a very complex and fast sport, a powerful working memory is very important. All information about teammates, opponents, the ball, the weather, the field, and the coach must be perceived and updated. At the same time, new information is added while the old content must be maintained. If the performance of a player's working memory is not up to the demands, this player is overwhelmed and can no longer follow the dynamic game.
 
In addition to the functions described, a study by Hans-Erik Scharfen and Daniel Memmert at the Sports University of Cologne also points to the high relevance of working memory in football. They measured a positive relationship between working memory capacity and the ability to dribble, control the ball, and keep it up in a study with elite youth football players.

Further studies:

  1. Benedek et al., 2014: In this study, Benedek and colleagues examined, among other things, the relationship between working memory performance and intelligence as well as creativity. The results showed a positive relationship between working memory performance, fluid intelligence (problem solving, learning ability, pattern recognition), and creativity. The results thus illustrate the relevance of working memory performance for higher cognitive functions, which are crucial for success in football, among other things.
     

Further reading:
 
  1. Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007.
  2. Scharfen, H. E., & Memmert, D. (2019). The Relationship Between Cognitive Functions and Sport-Specific Motor Skills in Elite Youth Soccer Players. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 817. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00817.
  3. Wang, T., Li, C., Ren, X., & Schweizer, K. (2021). How Executive Processes Explain the Overlap between Working Memory Capacity and Fluid Intelligence: A Test of Process Overlap Theory. Journal of Intelligence, 9(2), 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020021.

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